Kingdom of Sardinia

The Kingdom of Sardinia comprised the island of Sardinia, first as a part of the Crown of Aragon and subsequently the Spanish Empire (1297–1720),^[1] and second as a part of the composite state of the House of Savoy (1720–1861). Its capital was originally Cagliari, in the south of the island, and later Turin, on the mainland. The kingdom was formed by Pope Boniface VIII from a papal claim to the islands of Corsica and Sardinia in 1297 and bestowed, as a vassal of the Holy See, on James II of Aragon.^[1] It was not until 1324 that James launched a military campaign to take control of his kingdom, and not until 1410 that the last native resisters fell. In 1416 the first of a long line of viceroys was appointed, and in 1420 the last competing claim to the island was bought out.

From 1516 the Aragonese and by extension the Sardinian crown were in personal union with the Kingdom of Castile and thus formed a part of the much larger Spanish Empire.^[1] During this period the Spanish language was introduced for administration. In 1713, following the War of the Spanish Succession, the Kingdom of Sardinia was ceded to the Habsburgs by the Treaty of Utrecht, effectively a consolation prize for the loss of their Spanish kingdoms. By the same treaty Victor Amadeus II, Duke of Savoy, received the Kingdom of Sicily, supplying him with the coveted royal rank.^[2] By 1720 the balance of power had shifted again and the House of Savoy was forced to exchange Sicily with the Habsburgs for Sardinia (Treaty of The Hague). At that time the Kingdom of Sardinia refers to the states of the House of Savoy from 1720 or 1723 onwards (also known as Piedmont-Sardinia), following the award of the crown of Sardinia to King Victor Amadeus II of Savoy under the Treaty of The Hague (1720).

After 1720 the kingdom became a composite state and besides Sardinia included Duchy of Savoy, Piedmont, Nice, Duchy of Aosta, Duchy of Monferrato, Vercelli and Asti, the Marquisate of Saluzzo and part of the Duchy of Milan; Ligurian Republic, including Genoa, was added by the Congress of Vienna in 1815. Officially, the nation's name was Kingdom of Sardinia;^[1] the House of Savoy maintaining a national claim to the thrones of Cyprus and Jerusalem, although both had long been under Ottoman rule and never conquered (the title was merely a formal title). In 1860, Nice and Savoy were ceded to France in return for French consent and assistance in Italian unification. In 1861, the Kingdom of Sardinia became the founding state of the new Kingdom of Italy, annexing all other Italian states. The Kingdom thus continued in legal continuity with the actual Italian state, to which it transferred all its institutions first to Kingdom of Italy (1861–1946) and after to Italian Republic.^[1]

Spanish rule (1297–1720)

Crown of Aragon (1297–1479)

In 1297, Pope Boniface VIII, intervening between the Houses of Anjou and Aragon in the war called Sicilian Vespers, established on paper a Regnum Sardiniae et Corsicae that would be a fief of the Papacy (in the island, however, already existed native state entities). Then the Pope offered his newly-invented fief to James II of Aragon, promising him papal support should he wish to conquer Pisan Sardinia in exchange for Sicily. In 1323 James II formed an alliance with Hugh II of Arborea and, following a military campaign which lasted a year or so, occupied the Pisan territories of Cagliari and Gallura along with Sassari, claiming the territory as the Kingdom of Sardinia and Corsica.

In 1347 Aragon made war on Genoa (who owned large areas of the Logudoro) then, starting from 1353, fought with the arborean leader Marianus IV, of the Cappai de Bas family, but did not reduce the last of the autochthonous giudicati (indigenous kingdoms of Sardinia) until 1409 when the Sardinian hopes of expel the Aragonese from the island vanished due to the heavy defeat at the Battle of Sanluri. In 1420, after the exstintion of the Giudicato of Arborea, the Aragonese conquest of Sardinia was completed and the royal territory for the first time after almost a century of wars, coincided with that of the entire island. The Kingdom of Sardinia and Corsica retained its separate character as part of the Crown of Aragon and was not merely incorporated into the Kingdom of Aragon. At the time of his struggles with Arborea, Peter IV of Aragon granted an autonomous legislature to the Kingdom, which had one of Europe's most advanced legal traditions. The Kingdom was governed in the king's name by a viceroy. When in 1409, Martin the Younger, king of Sicily and heir to Aragon, defeated the last Sardinian giudicato but then died in Cagliari of malaria, without issue, Sardinia passed with the Crown of Aragon to a united Spain. Corsica, which had never been conquered, was dropped from the formal title.

The loss of the autochthonous' independence, the firm Aragonese (later Spanish) rule, with the introduction of a sterile feudalism, as well as the discovery of the Americas, provoked an unstoppable decline of Kingdom of Sardinia. A short period of resurgence occurred under the local noble Leonardo de Alagon, marquess of Oristano, who managed to defeat the viceroy's army in the 1470s but was later crushed at the Battle of Macomer (1478), ending any further hope of independence for the island.

Spanish Empire (1479–1700)

Unceasing attacks from North African pirates and a series of plagues (from 1582, 1652 and 1655) worsened the situation on the island early in the reign of the Catholic Monarchs.

Sardinia between two powers (1700–1720)

The Spanish domination of Sardinia ended at the beginning of the 18th century, as a result of War of the Spanish succession. By the Treaty of Utrecht of 1713, Spain's European empire was divided: Savoy received Sicily and parts of the Duchy of Milan, while Charles VI (the Holy Roman Emperor and Archduke of Austria), received the Spanish Netherlands, the Kingdom of Naples, Sardinia, and the bulk of the Duchy of Milan.

During the War of the Quadruple Alliance, Victor Amadeus II, duke of Savoy and sovereign of Piedmont, had to agree to yield Sicily to the Austrian Habsburgs and receive Sardinia in exchange. The exchange was formally ratified in the Treaty of The Hague of February 17, 1720. Because a kingdom of Sardinia had existed since the 14th century, the exchange allowed Victor Amadeus to retain the title of king in spite of the loss of Sicily.^[3][4] Victor Amadeus initially resisted the exchange, and until 1723 continued to style himself King of Sicily rather than King of Sardinia.^[5]

Savoyard rule (1720–1861)

Early history of Piedmont

Piedmont was inhabited in early historic times by Celtic-Ligurian tribes such as the Taurini and the Salassi. They later submitted to the Romans (c. 220 BC), who founded several colonies there including Augusta Taurinorum (Turin) and Eporedia (Ivrea). After the fall of the Western Roman Empire, the region was repeatedly invaded by the Burgundians, the Goths (5th century), Byzantines, Lombards (6th century), Franks (773). In the 9th-10th centuries there were further incursions by the Magyars and Saracens. At the time Piedmont, as part of the Kingdom of Italy within the Holy Roman Empire, was subdivided into several marks and counties.

In 1046, Oddo of Savoy added Piedmont to their main segment of Savoy, with a capital at Chambéry (now in France). Other areas remained independent, such as the powerful communes of Asti and Alessandria and the marquisates of Saluzzo and Montferrat. The County of Savoy was elevated to a duke in 1416, and Duke Emanuele Filiberto moved the seat to Turin in 1563.

Napoleonic Wars and the Congress of Vienna

In 1792 Piedmont-Sardinia joined the First Coalition against the French First Republic, but was beaten in 1796 by Napoleon and forced to conclude the disadvantageous Treaty of Paris (1796), giving the French army free passage through Piedmont. On December 6, 1798 Joubert occupied Turin and forced Charles Emmanuel IV to abdicate and leave for the island of Sardinia. The provisionary government voted to unite Piedmont with France. In 1799 the Austro-Russians briefly occupied the city, but with the Battle of Marengo (1800), the French regained control. The island of Sardinia stayed out of the reach of the French for the rest of the war.

In 1814 the kingdom was restored and enlarged with the addition of the former Republic of Genoa, now a duchy, and it served as a buffer state against France. This was confirmed by the Congress of Vienna. In the reaction after Napoleon, the country was ruled by conservative monarchs: Victor Emmanuel I (1802–21), Charles Felix (1821–31) and Charles Albert (1831–49), who fought at the head of a contingent of his own troops at the Battle of Trocadero, which set the reactionary Ferdinand VII on the Spanish throne. Victor Emanuel I disbanded the entire Code Napoléon and returned the lands and power to the nobility and the Church. This reactionary policy went as far as discouraging the use of roads built by the French. These changes typified Piedmont. The Kingdom of Sardinia industrialized from 1830 onward. A constitution, the Statuto Albertino, was enacted in the year of revolutions, 1848, under liberal pressure, and under the same pressure Charles Albert declared war on Austria. After initial success the war took a turn for the worse and Charles Albert was defeated by Marshal Radetzky at Custozza.

Risorgimento

Like all of Italy, the Kingdom of Sardinia was troubled with political instability, under alternating governments. After a very short and disastrous renewal of the war with Austria in 1849, Charles Albert abdicated on March 23, 1849, in favour of his son Victor Emmanuel II.

In 1852 a liberal ministry under Count Camillo Benso di Cavour was installed, and the Kingdom of Sardinia became the engine driving the Italian Unification. The Kingdom of Sardinia (Piedmont) took part in the Crimean War, allied with the Ottoman Empire, Britain, and France, and fighting against Russia.

In 1859 France sided with the Kingdom of Sardinia in a war against Austria, the Austro-Sardinian War. Napoleon III didn't keep his promises to Cavour to fight until all of the Kingdom of Lombardy-Venetia had been conquered. Following the bloody battles of Magenta and Solferino, both French victories, Napoleon thought the war too costly to continue and made a separate peace behind Cavour's back in which only Lombardy would be ceded. Due to the Austrian government's refusal to cede any lands to the Kingdom of Sardinia, they agreed to cede Lombardy to Napoleon who in turn then ceded the territory to the Kingdom of Sardinia to avoid 'embarrassing' the defeated Austrians. Cavour angrily resigned from office when it became clear that Victor Emmanuel would accept the deal.

Garibaldi and the Thousand

On March 5, 1860 Parma, Tuscany, Modena, and Romagna voted in referendums to join the Kingdom of Sardinia. This alarmed Napoleon who feared a strong Savoyard state on his southeastern border and he insisted that if the Kingdom of Sardinia were to keep the new acquisitions they would have to cede Savoy and Nice to France. This was done after dubious referendums showed over 99.5% majorities in both areas in favour of joining France.

In 1860 Giuseppe Garibaldi started his campaign to conquer southern Italy in the name of the Kingdom of Sardinia. He quickly toppled the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies and marched to Gaeta. Cavour was actually the most satisfied with the unification while Garibaldi wanted to conquer Rome. Garibaldi was too revolutionary for the king and his prime minister.

Towards Kingdom of Italy

On March 17, 1861 the Kingdom of Italy was proclaimed by the Parliament, so ratifying the annexations of all other Italian states to Piedmont. The institutions and laws of the Kingdom were quickly extended to all Italy, brutally abolishing the administrations of the other regions. Piedmont would become the most dominant and wealthiest region in Italy and the capital of Piedmont, Turin, would remain the Italian capital until 1865 when the capital was moved to Florence; but in contrast, many revolts exploded through the peninsula, especially in Southern Italy. The House of Savoy would rule Italy until 1946 when Italy was declared a republic.

Kings of Sardinia (1297–1861)

Dynasty of the Counts of Barcelona:

• James II of Aragon (1324–1327)
• Alfonso IV of Aragon (1327–1336)
• Peter IV of Aragon (1336–1387)
• John I of Aragon (1387–1396)
• Martin of Aragon (1396–1410)

Dynasty of the Trastámara of Castile:

• Ferdinand I of Aragon (1412–1416)
• Alfonso I of Aragon (1416–1458)
• John II of Aragon (1458–1479)
• Ferdinand II of Aragon (1479–1516)

Dynasty of the Habsburgs of Spain:

• Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor (1516–1556)
• Philip II of Spain (1556–1598)
• Philip III of Spain (1598–1621)
• Philip IV of Spain (1621–1665)
• Charles II of Spain (1665–1700)

Dynasty of the Bourbons of Spain:

• Philip V of Spain (1700–1713)

Dynasty of the Habsburgs of Spain

• Charles VI, Holy Roman Emperor (1713–1720)

Dynasty of Savoy:

• Victor Amadeus II of Sardinia (1720–1730)
• Charles Emmanuel III of Sardinia (1730–1773)
• Victor Amadeus III of Sardinia (1773–1796)
• Charles Emmanuel IV of Sardinia (1796–1802)
• Victor Emmanuel I of Sardinia (1802–1821)
• Charles Felix of Sardinia (1821–1831)
• Charles Albert of Sardinia (1831–1849)
• Victor Emmanuel II of Sardinia (1849–1861)

Flags

When the Duchy of Savoy was add into Kingdom of Sicily in 1713 and Kingdom of Sardinia in 1723, it maintained its traditional flag depicting a white cross on a red field. But a problem arose: if the Duchy owned the small harbour of Nice only, the union with Sicily and then Sardinia gave to the Kingdom a quite big fleet, which had the same flag of Malta. To disambiguate the ships of the two different States, the House of Savoy added a blue border to its flag, and then it reduced the cross in a single quarter.

The flag had following minor changes until 1848, when a revolution happened: to follow the liberal revolutions which were exploding in all Europe, King Charles Albert adopted the Napoleonic Italian tricolour, surmonted by the Savoyard shield, as national flag. This flag became the flag of Italy until 1946.

Territorial evolution of the Kingdom of Sardinia

1324 - 1720

1720 - 1861

References

Sources

• Casula, Francesco Cesare (1994). Breve storia di Sardegna. Sassari: Carlo Delfino. ISBN 88-7138-065-7. 
• Hearder, Harry (1986). Italy in the Age of the Risorgimento, 1790-1870. London: Longman. ISBN 0582491460. 
• Martin, George Whitney (1969). The Red Shirt and the Cross of Savoy. New York: Dodd, Mead and Co.. ISBN 0396059082. 
• Storrs, Christopher (1999). War, Diplomacy and the Rise of Savoy, 1690-1720. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521551463. 
• Thuesen, Nils Petter (2002). Verdens historie i årstall. Orion. ISBN 9788245805178. 

External links

• History of the flag of Sardinia-Piedmont
• Piedmont-Sardinia on Ohio University website